A perspective on space: Preparing for 2075

Recognizing that space is now an integral component of present-day society, the Royal Society (the U.K. academy of sciences) has recently completed a report that explores the potential implications of space activities by 2075, aiming to stimulate discussion without predicting specific outcomes. It highlights the transformative impact of space exploration on industry, society and culture, comparable to the Industrial and Digital Revolutions. The goal is to prepare governments, regulators and society in general for the opportunities and risks space presents — it does not attempt to predict the future (that would indeed be unwise!) or to recommend a particular course of action, but rather to present the direction of travel and where that might lead.

Historically, humanity has progressively expanded from land to sea, air and now into outer space. The next decades will see increased exploration beyond near-Earth orbit, potentially establishing long-term bases on the moon and Mars. Advances in large reusable rockets, single-stage-to-orbit spaceplanes, and green propellants will both dramatically lower costs and increase access to orbit. These innovations could enable large-scale orbital manufacturing, reducing constraints on spacecraft size and supporting point-to-point suborbital transport on Earth for rapid disaster response or security operations.

Parallel developments in robotics, AI, computing and synthetic biology will transform human life. Space-based power systems, leveraging abundant solar or nuclear energy, could support orbital factories, data centers and clean energy transmission to Earth. Recycling technologies developed for space stations could benefit Earth, while lunar or asteroid resource extraction could create a circular space economy, reducing environmental impacts on Earth.

This increased space activity necessitates international agreements on space traffic management and debris minimization, similar to the Astra Carta or the Earth & Space Sustainability Initiative’s principles. Relocating high-energy industries to orbit could mitigate Earth’s environmental challenges, leveraging microgravity and space-based energy. However, lunar activities risk degrading pristine environments, requiring careful management to preserve scientific opportunities. And equitable and sustainable access to space needs to be assured for both large and smaller players.

Robotic and autonomous systems will continue to lead space exploration, preparing safe environments for human activity. Orbital research platforms could exploit microgravity to develop advanced materials, pharmaceuticals and biological products, potentially producing “Made in Space” goods for Earth. Expanded research facilities will improve scientific quality through the ability to have large-scale repeatable microgravity experiments, enabling more Earth-based groups to conduct space research.

On the moon, autonomous robots powered by solar or nuclear energy could mine resources and build infrastructure, including subsurface bases to shield against radiation and extreme temperatures. These bases could serve as hubs for scientific research, commercial activity and gateways for deeper Solar System exploration. Radio telescopes located on the far side of the moon, free from Earth’s interference, could search for extraterrestrial life. A lunar economy with human workers in such a remote and extreme environment would require new ethical, health and safety frameworks.

International collaboration across diverse political structures, however difficult, is vital for the safe, productive and equitable use of space. Historical examples exist like the Cospas-Sarsat system, which saved over 60,000 lives, and Apollo-Soyuz, enabling U.S. access to the ISS post-Shuttle. However, the growing number of state and non-state actors worldwide increases competition for orbital slots and radio frequencies, raising conflict risks. Near-Earth and cis-lunar space is already a geopolitical arena, with military satellites and anti-satellite weapons signalling increasing potential for space-based conflict. Robust protocols, starting as guidelines like the Astra Carta, are essential to ensure equitable resource access, reliable communication and conflict prevention while fostering collaborative research and commerce.

Technologies developed for lunar bases could pave the way for Martian facilities, though Mars’ distance (which would require a 750 to 1,000 day round trip) demands greater operational independence. Innovations in engineering biology and biotechnology for sustainable ecosystems could support long-term human presence on Mars, with applications on Earth in waste recycling, healthcare and food production. The possibility of individuals born on the moon or Mars will raise serious ethical questions regarding nationality and the ethical questions regarding physiology adaptation to a Martian environment.

Autonomous robotic systems developed for the moon and Mars could construct interplanetary stations for exploring Venus, Europa and beyond, supported by quantum and laser-based communication networks for high-bandwidth, secure data transfer across the Solar System.

By 2075, planetary sciences and astrobiology may clarify whether life exists beyond Earth. Discovering related life could reshape our understanding of life’s distribution, while an independent origin of life could revolutionize microbiology and applied biology. Conversely, finding no evidence of life would highlight Earth’s uniqueness, emphasizing the need to protect its biodiversity and our habitable environment. These outcomes will yield profound scientific and philosophical insights.

Space activities are accelerating globally, especially in the private sector, driven by both commercial opportunities and security concerns. Early awareness of long-term trends will help society prepare for unexpected challenges and make informed choices to sustainably benefit from the combination of Earth and space environments.

I was brought up reading the science fiction stories of Arthur Clarke and others in the 20^th century. The varied visions they presented gave us pictures of a range of possible futures, some of which have come to pass and much that has not — at least not yet! However, importantly, they encouraged us to think out of the box and face some possibly uncomfortable implications as well as exciting futures. We must continue this tradition.

The full report from the Royal Society is available at: https://royalsociety.org/news-resources/projects/space2075/

This article first appeared in the October 2025 issue of SpaceNews Magazine.

Martin Sweeting holds a Distinguished Chair in space engineering at the Surrey Space Institute at the University of Surrey, England. He has pioneered academic techniques and commercial  applications of small satellites since the 1980s. He chaired the Royal Society study on Space 2075.

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